This paper has been presented on the 19-th International Congress of Cross-Cultural Psychology, July 27-31, 2008
Anatoly Khromov (Russia), Dorothy Morrison (USA)
We propose to present the results of a multi-year cross-cultural study investigating attitudes toward the family and other cultural issues from three perspectives. Respondents from Russia, the United States, and India were asked to register how they see the family’s problems in Russia, India, and the USA on 15 attributes. The survey then asked the respondents to assume the perspectives of the three different cultures and answer the same questions; i.e., how do you think a person from Russia views the family’s problems, how do you think a person from India views the family’s problems, and how do you think a person from the USA views the family’s problems. The results were analyzed to reveal similarities and differences in cultural perspectives and cross-checked against perceptions of each culture by the other cultures.
Basic knowledge of modern cross-cultural psychology is received in the framework of so-called etic approach. Followers of this school suppose that basic psychological processes are general for all the people but ethnical culture has serious influence to their manifestation. D. Berry considers that all the cultures are equal, in outward appearance different but fundamentally identical.
The results of cross-cultural comparisons often induce dissatisfaction. Up to this point there are no answers to the fundamental questions of cross-cultural psychology: to what degree and by which methods culture influences the person’s inner world; what psychological facts are actually universal and could be investigated in case of the person’s behavior description in the cultures being compared; how to overcome subjectivism in the results’ interpretation in case of the cultures’ comparison.
Many of ethnical psychologists and cultural anthropologists (D. Berry, D. Matsumoto, G. Triandis, F. Khsyu, T. Stefanenko, N. Lebedeva and the others) consider it to be impossible to find the adequate indexes for comparison of the cultures variables as well as each of them represent complete and unique world. For example, G. Triandis casts some doubt on objectivity of etic approach and he proposes the combined еtic- етic- etic approach.
In case of comparison of the cultures in the framework of etic approach the general requirement is the following: the toolkit should be obligatory adapted to each culture being studied.
The main disadvantages of all subjective methods in cross-cultural psychology are the difficulties related to the problem of overcoming of personalism in interpretation of the investigation data.
In order to estimate the different cultures’ peculiarities in case of measuring of the ethnical representation we propose to use the reflexive method, which allows to minimize the excessive ethnocentric subjectivism of the persons being tested.
In science currently the reflexive terminology is being used more and more as well as means of reflexive analysis of psychological facts (Lefevr, Lepsky, Shchedrovitsky and etc.) Reflection is not only displaying of the secondary images. Reflection gives the chance to see the world differently than from the direct point of view. Reflexive estimation of the subject from different positions allows to discover the characteristics of reality more generalized and more objective, thus it promotes in receiving of consistant results.
Reflection (lat. Reflexio - reference back to the foundation, reflecting, prefix re- means repeatability and/or back action, and flexio - bending, deformation, alteration in case of transition to the other attitude). Reflexing the conditions and the results of external world representation, consciousness comes to internal self-actualization. Reflection is the consciousness ability to direct and to bring itself to a unity in the process of interaction with multiformity o f separate things.
Thanks to reflection at its final stage the image of cognized thing is being introduced to the consciousness contents which is appropriated by the consciousness as its own form which promotes the demonstration of its identity and reactualization. Speculation is the absolute form of reflection (lat. speculum - mirror, speculor - to contemplate, species - kind) - phenomenological comprehension of the existing at the intersection of its reflections which possess the quality of glassiness. In case of speculative reflection inter-reflecting of the cognoscitive and cognizable in each other is being achieved, a peculiar kind of reflection’s reflection thanks to which self-developing knowledge is realized.
If to use categorial link subject-object and to imagine as "percept” a certain thing lying opposite us and to take our active consciousness as the notion "subject” being able to reflect, thus "the subject of representation is the image vehicle of conceptualization” or that thing and that person which bears information.
The other subject being at the same time an object of our direct estimation as well as the estimation of the others, and at the same time being the object of self-estimation, affirms something by its estimation and has its subjective conceptualization. The competitive situation occurs in which it is necessary to specify if our representation of the object and the subject’s self-representation about it are identical. The truth determination is possible only at a higher level of reflection - at reflexive level at which the subject becomes not only initial representation (or the thing to be imagined) but its reflection or even double reflexive reflection. That is to say, truth (the second level of reflexive reflecting) becomes the subject of representation of the second level and in this case we say more confidently: this reflexive representation corresponds to the subject entity in a greater degree, and the other, not reflexive - at less degree.
How can we specify the genuineness of representation about ethnical object? It is possible by correlating the instant representation of the object with reflection of the second level (or with proper reflexive representation) which should specify the genuineness in comparison with representation of ethnical object of lower order (direct estimations). This second representation, representation of the second level is the very reflexive representation.
The question about correlation of true and false knowledge in ethnical psychology is rather complicated and the main difficulty is in absence of reliable criterion for revelation of real ethno psychological characteristics of this or that social reality. D. Campbell considers that understanding between group perseption of itself and of its perseption by the other group is the sign of ethnical perseption genuineness, that is coincidence of auto stereotypes and hetero stereotypes.
The procedure of "two mirrors” can be the prototype of the supposed by us reflexive approach which is used in sociology and it allows to compare the own images (self- characteristics) with the other’s images. "One ethnical group finds its identity looking into the features of the other, far and near ethnoses”. Namely mirroring lies at the heart of reflection - … this is a process of double mirror inter displaying of the subjects by each other, the contents of which is reproduction, mental re-creation of the features of one another”.
In order to understand the essence of the character of reflexive representation it is necessary to introduce such notions as associativity and dissociativity. In case of associated reflecting we see everything from the first person, by our own eyes and we perceive the occurrent as if it really happens exactly with us. In case of dissociated point of view the subject takes the position of external observer and seeming to keep an eye on the object from outside. These two points of view reflect subjective and objective method of reflexive representation. In the language they are connected with grammatical categories of the first person (I, WE) and of the third person (THEY).
It is possible to perceive any circumstances of reality as minimum from three positions of reflexive representation. These points of view of the subject would be called positions of reflexive representation of the subject.
The first position of the subject corresponds to the zero level of reflexive reflecting. The first position - is an associated position, it reflects the subjective point of view straight from the first person. "So called circumstances are depicted personally to ME”. In case of such fixation of subjective feelings that is creating of the secondary representational character of representation the subject sees everything like in the life as if he looks around by his own eyes, meanwhile he recollects his subjective associations related to the event happening. All the available recollections and facts related to the first meeting with the person of the other nationality, with unknown culture, for example, become actual. When describing these feelings we usually use the first person: "I feel”, "IT seems to me”, "from MY point of view”, etc. This position of perseption is equivalent to individual consciousness. The scientists who tend to maximum objectivity in their estimations and judgements usually scantily trust to such subjective knowlege. They have all the grounds for that: staying at the first associated position of reflecting the subject is not able to represent the social objects objectively and it should be taken into consideration.
The second position of the subject. At this position the secondary feelings are considered from the point of view of the other representatives of the same ethnos that is from the point of view of the co-parties of the same life events and life occurrences. The second position of the subject corresponds to the first level of reflection measuring. Moving to this point of view the subject can describe the feelings of his fellow-countryman. But in joint assessments the people visualize the events taking place in different ways that is subjectively. Projecting himself to the place of the other person the subject can move to the other not less significant point of view as if having put himself mentally to his place. In order to do that the subject has to imagine how the world is being perceived by the other person’s eyes. We associate this position of representation together with empathy, with the ability to imagine reflexively the cultural phenomena INSTEAD OF THE OTHER PERSON.
The estimation of the reality circumstances by the subject from the second position gives much more data to the researcher than the efforts just to guess what the other person feels and knows. The second position in estimations on the whole usually makes it actual the group involvement. When it becomes evident how the other person sees the other culture, what feelings it brings in him, in this case it is already a reflexive level which also changes the general representation. Besides that the image from the other person’s point of view gives to the subject the chance to get strengthened deeper and further and wider in his representation which obtains new meaning. Reflexive that is unspecified transition to the second position in case of measuring means that justification of those points of view which are different from those belonging to the subject himself is being recognized. The researcher begins to discover genuine knowledge and representations which stand behind the ethnical stereotypes.
Knowledge of these representations can serve the key to the right impression and consequently to a deeper attainment of truth. It goes without saying that the researcher will never reveal the objective picture in its entirety, moreover on the ground of the other person’s subjective consciousness. Reflection does not bring any supernatural abilities but it can serve as truthful guide on the way to the world representation as it is seen by the others, no matter we agree with them or not. In order to discover the ability and to come to the other position in case of creation of the image the subject has to activate his imaginativeness. For the majority of the persons being tested the ability to take the second position of representation means first of all skill to abandon the stereotypes of thinking and established patterns of representation.
The third and the subsequent positions of the subject’s representation. Moving to the third position the subject starts to behave as the third party as complete outsider but not direct participant of cultural interaction and estimation, the person being tested becomes independent, ultimately dissociated objective observer. He takes out-of-body point of view, and he performs the role of a dispassionate observer. Meanwhile he steps back from the circumstances; he draws off to the shadow and just overwatches the events taking place.
Although in fact the estimations of the third level as proper reflexive valuations are least of all objective as far as they depend on the appraisers’ information awareness and their knowledge. This position can reflect any point of view which is different from that of the other participants of mutual estimation. For example, estimating differences in cultures of Russia, India and the USA the Russian can look at the representatives of India from the position of the Americans or from the position of the Indians themselves and so on, moving to any higher level of out-of-body situation (reflexivity).
Ask yourself: how are we represented from the point of view of this or other ethnos? And you will see that this approach will discover in front of you really endless number of points of view. Though it is possible to suppose that together with the reflecting level increase the measurement accuracy becomes less. It was shown in our cross-cultural measurement where the representation of the students on peculiarities of cultures of Russia, India and the USA were investigated how the reflexive approach and use if statistical method specially adapted for this research by the Russian scientist M.M. Basimov allowed to sum up all the points of view, it elevated the humanitarian measurement on a brand new level giving brand new character to the measurement of cultures on the ground of generalization of subjective representation of their representatives.
Every position of representation has its own advantages. But adjustment of all these points of view which is the essence of the method of multidimensional reflexive social objects measurement reveals possibilities for creation of fuller representation or any other form of psychic representation. Although the positions of the subjects look very much unlike but being summed up the method multidimensional reflexive measurement gives the objective picture.
Of course, every person has his own level of development of abilities to reflexive representation as well as to reflexive thinking. The subject who is inclined to thinking from out-of-body that is from reflexive (and thus, from more objective) impersonal and abstract point of view estimates the object from the third position with greater accuracy. The person who accepts and understand the other people’s peculiarities without difficulty naturally gives more exact estimations from the second position. At last, the person who usually is guided only by his own estimations, makes his stored knowledge and representations actual from the first position of the subject.
Using the reflexive method we achieve the higher level of generalization of the secondary image showing its new facets and we make the mind to give special attention to new impressions. In case of transition to unusual positions when creating the secondary images the subject has unexpected associative afterlights and intuitive revelations. Thus, the advantages of this method give us the chance to leave the limits of immediate subjective estimation and to improve all the sides of our consciousness and to get more objective representation characteristics.
Positions of the representation subjects which allow to get three levels of subjective estimations make an important if not to say the determinative part of reflexive approach which is specified by us as multidimensional method of ethnical reflexive measurement of representations. The essence of such an approach is that thanks to free transitions between three positions of inner observation of every subject the representation and group mutual reflexive estimations of the subjects of different groups we as a result of statistical generalization of all the received estimations get the measured reflexive representation estimation.
The estimation received helps the researcher to understand the representation images and thinking of the persons being tested better, as far as they acquire objective character. Thus, multidimensional reflexive representation measurement method allows the researcher to bring to light and to study the wealth and variety of subjective world of all the participants of multidimensional measurement of social and ethnical objects.
The degree of manifestation of the representation image which is received on the ground of questionnaire survey by reflexive method as well as statistical transformation which is received as a result should be called the level of reflexive representation measurement.
In social psychology the social distance measuring method is known, with its help they explain the perceptive side of interaction and communicating of different groups, their mutual representation and conceptualizations, their likes and dislikes, understanding and goals and settings accepting. It is supposed that if the other culture is being perceived as very far and unlike their own culture the more the group develops the psychological defence mechanisms in the form of … stereotyped positive character «WE» and… negative character «THEY». The definition of the cultural distance between one ethnical group and a certain other concrete ethnical group depends on many parameters, among them besides objectively existing cultural distinctiveness the factors of general awareness and personalistic first-hand experience of intercultural and interethnic contacts work.
In our research not only cross-cultural differences in reflexive representation of youth of three ethnical groups at the macrolevel are obtained but the significance of cultural assumptions intercommunity was studied, and cultural distance was developed on the ground of the data on multidimensional measurement of reflexive representation. In the method of social and ethnical reflexive representation research proposed by us the emphasis was moved from real cultural differences to the sphere of images of social representation of the subjects. It is important that with the help of multidimensional measurement of reflexive representation we also determine « subjective distance» between large ethnical groups, which are at the different levels of socio-economic development representing different groups.
In social psychology the social distance measuring method is known, with its help they explain the perceptive side of interaction and communicating of different groups, their mutual representation and conceptualizations, their likes and dislikes, understanding and goals and settings accepting. It is supposed that if the other culture is being perceived as very far and unlike their own culture the more the group develops the psychological defence mechanisms in the form of … stereotyped positive character «WE» and… negative character «THEY». The definition of the cultural distance between one ethnical group and a certain other concrete ethnical group depends on many parameters, among them besides objectively existing cultural distinctiveness the factors of general awareness and personalistic first-hand experience of intercultural and interethnic contacts work.
In our research not only cross-cultural differences in reflexive representation of youth of three ethnical groups at the macrolevel are obtained but the significance of cultural assumptions intercommunity was studied, and cultural distance was developed on the ground of the data on multidimensional measurement of reflexive representation. In the method of social and ethnical reflexive representation research proposed by us the emphasis was moved from real cultural differences to the sphere of images of social representation of the subjects. It is important that with the help of multidimensional measurement of reflexive representation we also determine «subjective distance» between large ethnical groups, which are at the different levels of socio-economic development representing different groups.
The research of collective reflexive representation of Russia, India and the USA was conducted in the framework of universal measurements of culture: individualism-collectivism, concepts of cultural distance and ethnical representation.
In cross-cultural research the results of students’ reflexive representation were obtained, they were studied from three positions of the subjects representation and at three levels of reflection (0, 1, 2). Zero level of collective representation was measured from the first position by the direct estimations of peculiarities of their own culture and peculiarities of the other cultures. At zero level of reflection the estimation of culture is being measured from the first position - from the subject to the object (how I proximately IMAGINE the cultures estimated).
The first level of reflexive representation coincides with auto stereotypes and with the reflexive representation of the other cultures in behalf of the representatives of their own culture. The estimation of cultures at the first level of reflection is implemented from the second position of the subject, from the position of the representatives of one culture - WE estimate ourselves and the others (MY representation of the way how OURS imagine their own culture and the other cultures).
The second level of reflexive representation is multiple reflection of some peculiarities of culture from the point of view of the representatives of the other cultures. At the second level of reflexive representation (the level of double reflexive representation) the cultures are being estimated from the third position of the subject, from the position of the representatives of the other cultures - how THEY estimate US (WE know how the OTHER imagine the peculiarities of our culture and how the peculiarities of other cultures are reflected in OUR consciousness).
Thanks to proposed reflexive approach (multidimensional reflexive representation measurement method), research of ethnical intercommunity in accordance with the set-up parameters of culture in cross-cultural research survey data was obtained on different subjective representation of different ethnical groups which were fixed in weighted parameters of interethnic representation. If in case of research of cultural distance by the method of Bogardus the degree of culture’s proximity is usually being estimated in the parameters «far - middle - near» then in case of multidimensional generalized reflexive measurement the objective picture of subjective representation of their and other cultures was obtained.
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